Today's plan

Remaining Minix System Calls

processes may depend on each other
example: a consumer may wait for the producer to produce, or a producer may wait for the consumer to consume and free up space in the shared buffer
IPC mechanisms may support one or more of the following:
- synchronization: needed so process A can tell when process B has reached a certain point. Example: barrier synchronization stops all processes in a group until the last one has arrived at the barrier
- data exchange: process A receives data from process B. May involve synchronization so process A waits for process B to complete preparing the data
- mutual exclusion (a special case of synchronization): at most one process may be accessing a certain set of variables. If a process expects to be the only one accessing a given set of variables, that process is in its critical region

incrementing is not an atomic operation
if:
1. one process (A) begins to increment a memory location by reading a value into a register
2. then A gets suspended, then
3. another process (B) increments the memory location, then
4. the first process writes the (now) incorrect value back to memory
the final result should be n+2, but is only n+1
other non-atomic operations include inserting a value into a data structure (e.g. adding a file to a print spool or adding a value to a queue) or writing contents to a file

prevent execution of any other process while process A is in its critical region:
- by disabling interrupts, or
- by requiring all code to acquire a mutual exclusion lock before entering a critical region, and release it at the end of the critical region, or
- by requiring all code to acquire a binary semaphore
code that cannot acquire a lock must spin, that is, loop
code that cannot acquire (down) a semaphore will be put to sleep (suspended), and woken up once the semaphore is released (uped)
setting locks or semaphores generally requires atomic operations:
- interrupts can be disabled while the lock or semaphore is accessed, or
- hardware atomic operations such as Test-And-Set instructions can perform the operation while guaranteeing atomicity, even in the case of multiple processors
- more complex software-only solutions are available as well, including Peterson's algorithm
semaphores are much more general, allowing up to n acquire operations. This can allow semaphores to be used, for example, to keep track of the number of items (or free spaces) in a buffer.

some data structures have reader processes and writer processes
any data structure could have any number of readers if there were no writers
a read lock can be acquired any number of times, as long as there are no writers
the corresponding write lock can only be acquired if there are no other readers or writers
as an alternative:
- writers increment a counter when they enter and exit their critical section
- writers only enter if the counter was even
- readers record the value of the counter at the beginning of the critical section, and only enter if the counter is even
- readers repeat their critical section if the counter has changed by the end of the critical section
very efficient for writers, can be very slow (livelock) for readers

ideal for consumer-producer problem
on Unix/Posix: pipes of bytes. In theory pipes of arbitrary data structures could also be useful
on Unix/Posix can use arbitrary file operations, including read and write, select, and close.
consumer reads from pipe, up to a maximum specified by the read call, may block if no data is available
producer writes to pipe, may block if no buffer space is available
in a system with very little memory, could synchronize producer and consumer to copy data from producer's buffer directly to consumer's buffer
in practice a system buffer gives better performance than no buffer, so most systems allow the producer to write up to a certain amount of data (typically 4096 bytes), then consumer can read large blocks of data
a single thread that is both producer and consumer of the same pipe will block if the system suspends the consumer until the buffer is full
a single thread that is both producer and consumer of the same pipe will block if the process tries to write more than the buffer hods

a monitor is a module (similar to a C++/Java class) with some private variables that only the monitor routines can access
at most one monitor routine can be active at any given time
when a second monitor routine is called, it suspends (before executing) until the first has completed
a monitor routine never needs to be re-entrant, that is, it is guaranteed to complete before the next call to the same routine (or any other routine in the same monitor)
a monitor routine that cannot continue can wait, and another is allowed to run (and eventually signal the one that called wait)
writing re-entrant code is harder (and errors are harder to debug), so monitors help write correct concurrent programs

unfortunately, monitors require language support
instead, in practice programmers must
1. identify related global variables that are changed in individual critical regions
2. create a lock associated with each group of variables
3. acquire the lock each time before reading or modifying the variables
4. release the lock each time after reading or modifying the variables
these operations are error-prone
failure to release a lock may deadlock the entire system, since all processes may eventually be waiting for the lock to be released
it is easy to forget to release a lock -- just return from within the critical region

can extend pipes to pass structured data rather than just bytes
can also extend pipes to data among different processors or across a network
the result is called message passing
message passing systems must answer questions of:
- identifying receiver, e.g. a process or a mailbox (a mailbox could be accessed via a file descriptor, e.g. a socket)
- dealing with lost messages or overflowing buffers: acknowledgements, sequence numbers
- efficiency, avoiding copying unless absolutely necessary -- important on message-passing supercomputers
message passing may not provide enough synchronization, so external forms of synchronization, e.g. barrier synchronization, can be used
another form of synchronization is to have the sender rendezvouz (first process to reach the rendezvouz point waits for the other) with the receiver, so data can be copied directly from the sender's to the receiver's buffer
much in common with networking, but sometimes on a single system

some data structures have reader processes and writer processes
any data structure could have any number of readers if there were no writers
instead of having reader/writer locks,
readers could simply notify the system that they are reading, and when they are done reading
writers could
1. create a copy of part of the data structure
2. wait for all the readers to finish reading
3. destructively update the data structure to point to the new copy
this is called RCU, and is very efficient for readers